Common Superstitions (Распространенные суеверия)

 

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What is Superstition?

According to Webster's dictionary, superstition is n. any belief that is inconsistent with the known laws of science or with what is considered true and rational; esp., such a belief in omens, the supernatural, etc.

Halloween is traditionally the time when common superstitions, folklore, myths and omens carry more weight to those who believe. Superstition origins go back thousands of years ago. Beliefs include good luck charms, amulets, bad luck, fortunes, cures, portents, omens and predictions, fortunes and spells.

Bad fallacies far outweigh the good, especially around Halloween when myths run rampant. When it comes right down to it, many people still believe that omens can predict our destiny and misfortune -- particularly for the worse.

Superstitions & Bad Luck Omens

Black Cats

Black cats have long been believed to be a supernatural omen since the witch hunts of the middle ages when cats were thought to be connected to evil. Since then, it is considered bad luck if a black cat crosses your path.

Broken Mirrors

An ancient myth our ancestors believed was that the image in a mirror is our actual soul. A broken mirror represented the soul being astray from your body. To break the spell of misfortune, you must wait seven hours (one for each year of bad luck) before picking up the broken pieces, and bury them outside in the moonlight.

Ladders

In the days before the gallows, criminals were hung from the top rung of a ladder and their spirits were believed to linger underneath. Common folklore has it to be bad luck to walk beneath an open ladder and pass through the triangle of evil ghosts and spirits.

Owls

If an owl looks in your window or if you seeing one in the daylight bad luck and death will bestow you.

Salt

At one time salt was a rare commodity and thought to have magical powers. It was unfortunate to spill salt and said to foretell family disarray and death. To ward off bad luck, throw a pinch over your shoulder and all will be well.

Sparrows

Sparrows are thought to carry the souls of the dead and it is believed to bring bad luck if you kill one.

Unlucky Number #13

The fear of the number 13 is still common today, and avoided in many different ways. Some buildings still do not have an official 13th floor and many people avoid driving or going anywhere on Friday the 13th.

Good Luck Superstitions

Horseshoes

To bring good luck, the horseshoe must lost by a horse and be found by you, with the open end facing your way. You must hang it over the door with the open end up, so the good fortune doesn't spill out.

Another origin of the 'lucky horseshoe' is the belief that they ward off witches. Witches, it was once believed, were opposed to horses, which is why they rode brooms and pitchforks instead. By placing a horseshoe over a door, the witch would be reluctant to enter. (Hat tip: Iris)

Four Leaf Clover

Clover is believed to protect humans and animals from evil spells and is thought to be good luck to find a four leaf clover, particularly for the Irish.

Rabbit's Foot

These lucky charms are thought to ward off bad luck and bring good luck. You mush carry the rabbit's foot on a chain around your neck, or in your left back pocket. The older it gets, the more good luck it brings.

Wishbones

Two people are to pull apart a dried breastbone of a turkey or chicken and the one who is left with the longer end will have their wish come true.

Common Myths & Folklore

- If the flame of a candle flickers and then turns blue, there's a spirit in the room.

- If a bird flies through your house, it indicates important news. If it can't get out, the news will be death.

- A person born on Halloween will have the gift of communicating with the dead.

- A bat in the house is a sign of death.

- If a bird flies towards you, bad fortune is imminent.

- If your palm itches, you will soon receive money. If you itch it, your money will never come.

- Crows are viewed as a bad omen, often foretelling death. If they caw, death is very near.

- If a person experiences great horror, their hair turns white.

- A hat on a bed will bring bad luck.

- Eat an apple on Christmas Eve for good health the next year.

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Источник: http://www.halloween-website.com/superstitions.htm

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Origins of 13 Common Superstitions

By Kathleen Davis

Even if you don’t consider yourself a superstitious person, you probably say “God bless you” when someone sneezes or find yourself knocking wood. And, though superstitions aren’t logical, the idea of luck and magic can be comforting—especially when so many things are beyond our control. In honor of this unlucky day, we set out to discover the source for 13 common superstitions.

1. The Number 13

The belief that the number 13 is unlucky is said to be the most common superstition. This fear is so widespread that many apartments and hotels omit the 13th floor, and some planes have no 13th row. Avoiding the number 13 is thought to stem from Christianity—there were 13 guests at the Last Supper, for example, and some believe that if you have 13 letters in your name, you will have the devil’s luck.

2. Black Cats

Although in the U.S. we believe that having a black cat cross your path is bad luck, it’s not the same the world over. In Egypt, for example, all cats are considered lucky—this dates back to ancient times, when cats were considered sacred. Our modern-day fear of black cats may stem from the Middle Ages, when it was believed that a witch could take the form of a black cat.

3. Breaking a Mirror

The belief that you’ll have seven years’ bad luck if you break a mirror is said to come from the Romans, who were the first to create glass mirrors. But long ago many cultures, including Greek, Chinese, African and Indian, believed that a mirror had the power to confiscate part of the user’s soul. The thinking was that if the mirror was broken, the person’s soul would be trapped inside.

4. Walking Under a Ladder

It makes sense that you shouldn’t walk under a ladder for safety’s sake, but superstition advises against it for other reasons. First, an open ladder forms a triangle, and triangles were once considered a symbol of life, so walking through that shape was considered tempting your fate. It is also thought that because it has three sides, the triangle symbolizes the Holy Trinity, and “breaking” it by entering the triangle is bad luck.

5. Throwing Salt over Your Shoulder

The belief that you should toss a pinch of salt over your left shoulder to get rid of bad luck originates from the legend that the devil is always standing behind you, so throwing salt in his eye will distract him from causing trouble. Nowadays, most people only do this after spilling salt—which is thought to be bad luck, because salt was an expensive commodity long ago and folklore linked it to unlucky omens in order to prevent wasteful behavior.

6. Opening an Umbrella Inside

According to superstition, bad luck will “rain” on you if you open an umbrella indoors. One explanation comes from the days when umbrellas were used as protection from the sun; opening one inside was an insult to the sun god. Another theory: An umbrella protects you against the storms of life, so opening one in your house insults the guardian spirits of your home, causing them to leave you unprotected.

7. Saying “God Bless You” After a Sneeze

Considered a polite response to a sneeze, the phrase “God bless you” is attributed to Pope Gregory the Great, who said it to people who sneezed during a bubonic plague. Aside from the idea of protecting against the spread of disease, “blessing” someone after they sneezed originated from the erroneous beliefs that the soul escapes the body during a sneeze and the heart momentarily stops as well. Therefore, saying “God bless you” was a way of welcoming the person back to life.

8. Carrying a Rabbit’s Foot

The superstition can be traced as far back as the seventh century BC, when the rabbit was considered a talismanic symbol, and the left hind foot was a handy way to benefit from the rabbit’s luck. Additionally, the Chinese consider it a sign of prosperity. In some cultures, the rabbit’s foot is believed to promote reproduction, so women carry one around to boost their odds of getting pregnant.

9. Knocking on Wood

Knocking on wood, or simply saying “knock on wood” after making a hopeful statement, is rooted in the idea that you’re tempting fate by acknowledging your good fortune. It’s thought that the expression comes from the ancient belief that good spirits lived in trees, so by knocking on something wooden, a person was calling on the spirits for protection.

10. Crossing Your Fingers

It’s a near-universal sign of wishing for something, but there are many theories about its origin. One is that when Christianity was illegal, crossing fingers was a secret way for Christians to recognize each other. Another is that during the Hundred Years’ War, an archer would cross his fingers to pray for luck, before drawing back his longbow with those same fingers. Yet another, even older, theory is that crossed fingers were used as a gesture to ward off witches and other evil spirits.

11. Horseshoes

There are several theories here. The first is that the devil appeared at the door of a blacksmith, who agreed to remove a shoe from his hoof if he promised never to enter a place where a horseshoe is hung over the door. The second belief is that witches rode on broomsticks because they were afraid of horses, so a horseshoe is a good charm to scare them off with.

12. Four-Leaf Clovers

Universal symbols of good luck, four-leaf clovers exist—they’re just hard to find. Legend says that when Adam and Eve were evicted from the Garden of Eden, Eve snatched a four-leaf clover as a remembrance of her days in Paradise. Since then, lucky attributes have been assigned to all four leaves of the rare plant—each associated with St. Patrick and the Holy Trinity in Irish legend.

13. Bird Droppings on Your Head

It sounds like a recipe for the ultimate bad hair day, but many people the world over believe that if a bird lets loose on you, good things are coming your way. One idea is that it’s a sign of major wealth coming from heaven, based on the belief that when you suffer an inconvenience (albeit a pretty gross one), you’ll have good fortune in return.

Из песни Des'ree "Life"

Life, oh life
Oh life, oh life

I'm a superstitious girl
I'm the worst in the world
Never walk under ladders
I keep a rabbits' tail
I'll take you up on a dare
Anytime, anywhere
Name the place, I'll be there
Bungee jumping, I don't care

Из песни Stevie Wonder "Superstition"

Very superstitious,
Writing's on the wall,
Very superstitious,
Ladders bout' to fall,
Thirteen month old baby,
Broke the lookin' glass
Seven years of bad luck,
The good things in your past

[Chorus]
When you believe in things
That you don't understand,
Then you suffer,
Superstition aint the way

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The American State Power System (Американская система государственной власти)

 

The American State Power System	Американская система государственной власти (Перевод С. Ярлыкова)
The United States is a constitutional republic. The nation operates as a presidential system also known as a congressional system. The federal government’s power is divided between three branches – the legislative, the executive and the judicial.	США является конституционной республикой. Нация работает как президентская система, также известная как система конгресса. Власть федерального правительства разделена между тремя ветвями - законодательной, исполнительной и судебной.
Legislative Branch. The legislative branch – the Congress – is made up of elected representatives from each of the 50 states. It is the only branch of U.S. government that can make federal laws, levy federal taxes, declare war, and put foreign treaties into effect. Members of the House of Representatives are elected to two-year terms. Each member represents a district in his or her home state. In all, there are 435 representatives in the House. Senators are elected to six-year terms. Each state has two senators, regardless of population. There are 100 senators. To become a law, a bill must pass both the House and the Senate. After the bill is introduced in either body, it is studied by one or more committees, amended, voted out of committee, and discussed in the chamber of the House or Senate. If passed by one body, it goes to the other for consideration. Once both bodies have passed the same version of a bill, it goes to the president for approval.	Законодательная власть. Законодательная власть - Конгресс - состоит из выборных представителей от каждого из 50 штатов. Это единственная ветвь власти США, которая может принимать федеральные законы, собирать федеральные налоги, объявлять войну, и утверждать иностранные договоры. Члены палаты избираются на двухлетний срок. Каждый член палаты представляет район в своем родном штате. Всего есть 435 представителей. Сенаторы избираются на шестилетний срок. Каждый штат имеет двух сенаторов, независимо от численности населения. Всего есть 100 сенаторов. Чтобы закон вступил в силу, законопроект должен быть рассмотрен как в палате представителей, так и в сенате. После того, как законопроект вступает в силу, его изучает один или несколько комитетов, вносят поправки, голосуют в комитете, и обсуждают в парламенте. Если он будет принят одним органом, его проверяет другой орган для рассмотрения. Как только обе палаты проверят законопроект, он идет к президенту для утверждения.
Executive Branch. The chief executive of the United States is the president, who together with the vice president is elected to a four-year term. As a result of a constitutional amendment that went into effect in 1951, a president may be elected to only two terms. Other than succeeding a president who dies or is disabled, the vice president's only official duty is presiding over the Senate. The vice president may vote in the Senate only to break a tie. The president's powers are formidable but not unlimited. As the chief formulator of national policy, the president proposes legislation to Congress. The president may veto any bill passed by Congress. The president is commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Within the executive branch, the president has broad powers to issue regulations and directives carrying out the work of the federal government's departments and agencies.	Исполнительная власть. Главой исполнительной власти США является президент, который вместе с вице-президентом избирается на четырехлетний срок. В результате конституционной поправки, которая вступила в силу в 1951 году, президент может быть избран только на два срока. Единственная официальная обязанность вице-президента осуществлять контроль над Сенатом, если президент умирает или становится недееспособным, то в дальнейшем, вице-президент вступает в должность президента. Вице-президент может отдать свой голос «за» или «против» если при голосовании количество голосов будет равным. Полномочия президента огромны, но не безграничны. В качестве главного определяющего национальную политику, президент предлагает законодательство в Конгресс. Президент может наложить вето на любой законопроект, принятый Конгрессом. Президент является верховным главнокомандующим вооруженными силами. В системе исполнительной власти, президент имеет широкие полномочия на издание постановлений и директив для выполнения работы отделов федерального правительства и ведомств.
Judicial Branch. The judicial branch is headed by the U.S. Supreme Court, which is the only court specifically created by the Constitution. In addition, Congress has established 13 federal courts of appeals and, below them, about 95 federal district courts. The Supreme Court meets in Washington, D.C., and the other federal courts are located in cities throughout the United States. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. With minor exceptions, cases come to the Supreme Court on appeal from lower federal or state courts.	Судебная ветвь власти. Судебная власть возглавляется американским Верховным Судом, являющимся единственным судом, специально созданным конституцией. Кроме того, Конгресс установил 13 федеральных апелляционных судов, низшей инстанции, около 95 федеральных окружных судов. Верховный суд находится в Вашингтоне, округе Колумбия, а федеральные суды находятся в городах на всей территории Соединенных Штатов. Верховный суд состоит из председателя суда и восьми судей. С небольшими исключениями, споры передаются в Верховный суд по апелляции из нижестоящих федеральных судов.

Separation of powers in the United States of America

In the United States of America power is divided between three branches. Each branch has its own area of responsibility, but at the same time each branch monitors the work of the other two branches, and has power to take action if mistakes or misconduct is perceived.

USA Checks and Balances

The US government is divided into three branches: The Executive (The President), The Legislative (Congress) and The Judicial (The Supreme Court). Each branch has its own specific duties. The division of power is part of what is called the system of “checks and balances” which was established to prevent any one single branch from doing anything without the approval or check of at least one of the other two. In this way balance is obtained. This system provides citizens with a comfort that actions and decisions, even as drastic as declaring war, will be discussed, debated and properly approved by the elected officials.

The following video clip (12:05), produced by the US Government, focuses on the history and founding of the US nation. It presents the important rights and responsibilities of US citizenship.

“Checks and Balances”

The three branches, forming a triangular shape, connect with one another, yet have their separate corners. They each have a main role/duties specific to their branch.

• The Executive Branch: The President carries out the laws, and he also proposes and lobbies for new legislation in Congress.
• The Legislative Branch: It is up to Congress to make and pass the laws.
• The Judicial Branch: When a law has been passed, the Supreme Court examines it to control that no part of it is unconstitutional.

No single branch of government can do anything without receiving the approval, or check, of at least one of the other two. In this way balance is obtained. Here are some examples:

• The courts can declare actions of the President, or his/her subordinates, unconstitutional.
• Congress can also check the federal courts. It has the power to remove a judge from office.
• If Congress passes a law that the President does not approve, he/she can block or veto it. However, Congress can override his/her veto, providing that two-thirds of both houses vote against the President.
• The President has executive privilege to withhold information from Congress, and Congress can mount an investigation to obtain information from the President.
• Congress can check the President by removing him/her from office.
• If a war is to be declared, Congress needs to approve. But in an emergency, the President can “press the button”. This is one of the President’s emergency powers.

The system of checks and balances provides citizens with a comfort that actions and decisions, even as drastic as declaring war, will be discussed, debated and properly approved by the elected officials that they have put their faith in.

The US Capitol building in Washington D.C. is home to the legislative branch.

A Triangular-Shaped System

The three branches form a triangle. They are connected but have their separate corners. The Executive Branch includes the President and his Cabinet. Their main role is administrative. The Legislative Branch is the Congress which is made up of elected Senators and Representatives and their main function is to make laws. The Judicial Branch is the Supreme Court and District Courts. They have the responsibility of making sure that decisions and laws are constitutional.

The executive branch

The president is elected by the people as a leader of their country. Since America is a super power, his position carries a great deal of influence around the world. The president is head of the executive branch. The executive branch governs the country and enforces laws. It includes the president, vice president, the Cabinet, and executive departments. The president also appoints people to a number of important offices. The president is often called "the most powerful man in the world", and while there is some truth to that, there are important limits to a president's power.

In order to be able to govern the country, the executive branch has to get approval for the budget. Only Congress can approve the budget. If the country is in a situation abroad where a war might happen, the president may threaten to go to war, but only Congress can declare war. The President may choose a candidate for the Supreme Court, but the candidate must be confirmed by the Senate.

If a president does something wrong he may be impeached. If this is to happen the House of Representatives must first vote to agree that an impeachment trial is to be held. At the trial the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides, and a two thirds majority vote in the Senate is required to convict. If convicted the president will no longer be president. Only three US presidents have been impeached, but none have been convicted. President Trump is the only president to have been impeached twice.

Checking and balancing the system of government

The US government is designed so that decisions that get made get checked. It is divided into three 'branches': the Executive branch, the Legislative branch and the Judicial branch. Each branch has its own tasks. By dividing the power in three, no single branch can do anything without the approval or 'check' of at least one of the other two. This system is called "check and balance". This system provides citizens with the comfort that actions and decisions - even declaring war - will be discussed, debated and properly approved by the elected officials.

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Как выучить топик по английскому языку

 

Топиками (от английского topic - тема) традиционно называют небольшие рассказы на английском языке, посвященные какой-либо одной теме и предполагающие их полное или частичное заучивания для дальнейшего пересказа.

Существует мнение, что топики надо обязательно заучивать наизусть. Это не совсем так: намного лучше, если учащийся сможет раскрыть тему своими словами, лишь опираясь на предлагаемый текст.

То, что связано с зубрежкой не вызывает энтузиазма у учащихся. Поэтому топики не пользуются особой любовью.

Однако на начальных стадиях изучения иностранного языка даже механическое заучивание может быть полезным для пополнения словарного запаса, запоминания устойчивых сочетаний, развития навыков монологического и диалогического высказывания на иностранном языке.

Если Вам требуется подготовить устное сообщение на заданную тему, возможно следующий алгоритм поможет Вам подготовить презентацию.

Как подготовить топик к пересказу:

1. Бегло прочитайте весь текст, ознакомьтесь с его содержанием, определите самые сложные места (слова), постарайтесь понять основную мысль, в чем смысл текста, что автор хотел сказать читателю.

2. Заново прочитайте текст, выписывайте (выделяйте) незнакомые слова (части предложения), постарайтесь догадаться, что они означают (основываясь на контексте), найдите их значение в словаре (у каждого слова, обычно, несколько значений, поэтому только контекст поможет Вам определить, какое значение использовано в данном конкретном случае), решите, стоит ли использовать их, или лучше заменить их знакомыми Вам (более простыми) синонимами.

3. Подчеркните (выделите) те части текста, которые Вы будете учить, постарайтесь не нарушить грамматическую и логическую структуру текста, если сомневаетесь в правильности, используйте те структуры, в правильности которых Вы уверены.

4. Старайтесь пересказать текст своими словами, если не получается, правильно заучивайте конструкции и словосочетания, обращая особое внимание на правильное произношение слов (будет очень мало толку, если Вы выучите неправильное произношение слов – ошибки могут остаться на всю жизнь), не стесняйтесь проверить транскрипцию в словаре (или Интернете).

5. Если учите наизусть: выучите первое предложение, повторите несколько раз вслух, выучите второе, повторите вслух, повторите вслух первое и второе предложения, выучите третье, повторите вслух, повторите вслух все с начала текста, продолжайте так же до конца текста.

6. В начале пересказа произнесите вводную фразу типа “I would like to tell you about... Я хотел бы рассказать вам о... / I will tell you about... Я расскажу вам о...”, чтобы слушающий знал тему Вашего выступления, а в конце – заключительную: “That's all, thank you. Это все, спасибо. / Thank you for your attention. Спасибо за внимание.” – чтобы было понятно, что Ваш рассказ закончен.

Как лучше учить топик:

- постарайтесь понять смысл каждого предложения и каждого слова;

- заменяйте сложные, незнакомые слова более легко произносимыми, знакомыми Вам;

- если Вы не уверены, как правильно произносится слово, посмотрите транскрипцию в словаре или в Интернет-сервисах;

- запоминайте основную мысль каждого предложения, если предложение длинное и сложное, постарайтесь сократить предложение, убрав избыточные (не ключевые) слова, можно разбить сложное предложение на составляющие его простые;

- если Вы легко можете пересказать основную мысль предложения, постарайтесь добавить дополнительные (второстепенные) элементы (прилагательные и т. п.);

- запоминайте устойчивые словосочетания – это очень полезно для изучения лексики и для развития навыков устного высказывания на иностранном языке;

- можно начитать текст на диктофон и прослушать несколько раз.

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